HEMOGLOBIN

 

HEMOGLOBIN ( Hb )

Hemoglobin is the most important component of red blood cells. It is composed of a protein called haem, which binds for carbon dioxide . Abnormilities of an individual’s hemoglobin value can indicate defects in the normal balance between red blood cell production and destruction. Both low and high values can indicate disease states.

Hemoglobin is a protein in red lood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the human body’s  tissues  & organs,it also carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

Hemoglobin is a most important  component of RBC(red blood cells) and gives them their colour.

How is hemoglobin measured

·         A hemoglobin test  measures the amount of hemoglobin in your blood.

·         This test is usully part of a complet blood count(CBC)

·         The amount of hemoglobin in whole blood is expressed in grams per deciliter(g/dl)

Normal range of hemoglobin

·         Males                   :               14 to 18 g/dl (138-172 gram per liter(g/L )

·         Female                :               12 to 16 g/dl  ( 121 – 151 gram per liter (g/L )

·         Child                     :               newborn             :-  14 to 24 g/dL      ( 140 – 240 gram per liter (  g/L )

Infant                    :-    9.5 to 13.0 g/dL ( 95 – 130 gram per liter(g/L )

Cause of low hemoglobin

·         A diet that is too low in iron, folate, & vitamin B12

·         Significant bleeding

·         Pregnancy

·         Genetic conditions such as sickle cell anemia & Thalassemia.

·         Cancer leukemia & Lymphoma

Symptoms of low hemoglobin

·         Weakness

·         Headaches

·         Bleeding

·         Chest pain

·         Irregular heartbeat

·         Cold hand and feet

·         Fatigue

·         Dizziness

·         Paaler then usual skin

·         Shortness of breath

Increasing Hemoglobin

Affect of hemoglobin

Altitude,Diet,Activity , Certain medicines, Dehydration , Smoking , & genetic Conditions.

WHY THE TEST IS PERFORMED

The hemoglobin test is a common test and is also always done as part of a CBC. Reasons or conditions for ordering the HB% test include:-

·         Before & after major surgery

·         Blood in your stools, or vomiting.

·         Chronic medical problems, such as kidney disease or certain types of arthritis

·         During pregnancy

·         Fatigue, poor health, or unexplained weight loss

·         Headaches

·         Heavy flow menstrual problems

·         Leukemia & other bone marrow related problems

·         Monitoring during cancer treatment

·         Poor nutrition

 

Risks

There is little risk involved with having your blood taken. Veins & arteries vary in size from one persons to another and from one side of the body to the other. Obtaining a blood sample from some people may be more difficult than from others.

Other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight, but may include:-

·         Excessive bleeding

·         Fainting or feeling lightheaded

·         Multiple punctures to locate veins

·         Hematoma  (blood buildup under the skin )

·         Infection ( a slight risk any time the skin is broken )

BIO MEDICAL WAST MANAGEMENT (BMW),

                                 BIO MEDICAL WAST MANAGEMENT (BMW)

INTRODUCTION

Biomedical or hospital waste refers to any waste generated while providing healthcare, performing research & undertaking investigations or related procedures on human beings or animals in hospitals, clinics, laboratories or similar establishments.

Potential hazards : Biomedical waste is far more dangerous & offensive than domestic waste because.

·         It contains infectious or other hazardous materials that may injure, infect or otherwise harm patients, their  visitors, hospital personnel & the public at large in several ways.

·         It may contain sharps such as needle or broken glass, that can cause injury & infection, or harmful chemicals & radioactive materials.

·         If kept untreated, it undergous fermentation & animals, rendering the site of generation and storage filthy and unhygienic.

·         It can attract rag pickers, who repack disposables or drugs and sell them.

Since B.M.W can be serious pollutants of soil,water & air,unless carefully managed,government  across the world have been forced to introduce legal restraints in this area. The Goverments of India has promulgated the Medical wast (management & Handling) Rules, 1998, Under which thew persons who are in charge of medical & other institutions where such wastes are generated (called occupiers) are held legally responsible for maintaining the conditions prescribed in the rules, which have come into effect from 1 january 2003.

 

Types of B.M.W

The amount of waste generated under Indian conditions has been estimated as 1 to 2 kg per bed per day and is composed of different types of waste, of which , on an average about 85 per cent is harmless and only 15 per cent is hazardous, which includes infectious waste.

HELICOBACTER-PYLORI

 

H. pylori(HELICOBACTER-PYLORI) test

H. Pylori teat a procedure that checks for the presence of Helicobacter pylori bacteria.

H. pylori is cause by stomach ulcers.

Symptoms that may call for H. pylori test

·         Bloating

·         Gas

·         Nausea

·         Vomiting

·         Dark coloured stool

·         Belching

·         Stomach pain

·         Fatigue

·         Feeling fuller after eating

·         Breathing shortness

·         Unexpercted weight loss

Diffrent Types of H. pylori tests procedure name

v  Urea breath test

v  Stool antigen test

v  Stool PCR test

v  Blood test for H. pylori

v  Endoscopic test for H. pylori

 

v  Urea breath test:- A pill, liquid, or pudding containing urea is swallowed, & then exhaled into a bag. H. pylori is present carbon is released into the breath.

 

v  Stool antigen test:- A Small stool sample is tested for H. pylori Antigen test.

 

v  Stool PCR test :- A stool sample is tested for H. pylori  & any antibiotic-resistant mutations. Test.

 

v  Blood test for H. pylori :- A BloodSample is tested for antibodies to H. pylori test.

 

v  Endoscopic test for H. pylori :- Athin tube with a camera and light is insert through the patient mouth and into the stomach to take a tissue, Send the laboratory  biopsy test  for H. pylori test.

Short name to Full name of Antibiotic name

 

Short name to Full name of  Antibiotic name

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

cDNA (complementary DNA)

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

cRNA (complementary RNA)

RNase (ribonuclease)

DNase (deoxyribonuclease)

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

mRNA (messenger RNA)

tRNA (transfer RNA)

AMP, ADP, ATP, dAMP, ddATP, and GTP, etc. (for the respective 5′ phosphates of adenosine and other nucleosides) (add 2′-, 3′-, or 5′- when needed for contrast)

ATPase and dGTPase, etc. (adenosine triphosphatase and deoxyguanosine triphosphatase, etc.)

NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, oxidized)

NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced)

NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)

NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, reduced)

NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, oxidized)

poly(A) and poly(dT), etc. (polyadenylic acid and polydeoxythymidylic acid, etc.)

oligo(dT), etc. (oligodeoxythymidylic acid, etc.)

UV (ultraviolet)

PFU (plaque-forming units)

CFU (colony-forming units)

MIC (minimal inhibitory concentration)

Tris (tris[hydroxymethyl]aminomethane)

DEAE (diethylaminoethyl)

EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid)

EGTA (ethylene glycol-bis[β-aminoethyl ether]-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid)

HEPES (N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N′-2-ethanesulfonic acid)

PCR (polymerase chain reaction)

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

Abbreviations for cell lines (e.g., HeLa) also need not be defined.

 

The following abbreviations should be used without definition in tables:

 

amt (amount)

approx (approximately)

avg (average)

concn (concentration)

diam (diameter)

expt (experiment)

exptl (experimental)

ht (height)

mo (month)

mol wt (molecular weight)

no. (number)

prepn (preparation)

SD (standard deviation)

SE (standard error)

SEM (standard error of the mean)

sp act (specific activity)

sp gr (specific gravity)

temp (temperature)

vol (volume)

vs (versus)

wk (week)

wt (weight)

yr (year)

Drugs and pharmaceutical agents. Should an author decide to abbreviate the names of antimicrobial agents in a manuscript, the following standard abbreviations are strongly recommended.

 

(i) Antibacterial agents. Use the indicated abbreviations for the following antibacterial agents.

 

arbekacin (ABK)

amikacin (AMK)

amoxicillin (AMX)

amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (AMC)

ampicillin (AMP)

ampicillin-sulbactam (SAM)

apramycin (APR)

azithromycin (AZM)

azlocillin (AZL)

aztreonam (ATM)

bezlotoxumab (BEZ)

carbenicillin (CAR)

cefaclor (CEC)

cefadroxil (CFR)

cefamandole (FAM)

cefazolin (CFZ)

cefdinir (CDR)

cefditoren (CDN)

cefepime (FEP)

cefetamet (FET)

cefiderocol (FDC)

cefixime (CFM)

cefmetazole (CMZ)

cefonicid (CID)

cefoperazone (CFP)

cefotaxime (CTX)

cefotetan (CTT)

cefoxitin (FOX)

cefpodoxime (CPD)

cefprozil (CPR)

ceftaroline (CPT)

ceftazidime (CAZ)

ceftazidime-avibactam (CZA)

ceftibuten (CTB)

ceftizoxime (ZOX)

ceftobiprole (BPR)

ceftolozane-tazobactam (C/T)

ceftriaxone (CRO)

cefuroxime (axetil or sodium) (CXM)

cephalexin (LEX)

cephalothin (CEF)

cephapirin (HAP)

cephradine (RAD)

chloramphenicol (CHL)

cinoxacin (CIN)

ciprofloxacin (CIP)

clarithromycin (CLR)

clindamycin (CLI)

colistin (CST)

dalbavancin (DAL)

daptomycin (DAP)

delafloxacin (DLX)

dicloxacillin (DCX)

dirithromycin (DTM)

doripenem (DOR)

doxycycline (DOX)

enoxacin (ENX)

eravacycline (ERV)

ertapenem (ETP)

erythromycin (ERY)

fleroxacin (FLE)

fosfomycin (FOF)

fusidic acid (FA)

gatifloxacin (GAT)

gentamicin (GEN)

grepafloxacin (GRX)

iclaprim (ICL)

imipenem (IPM)

imipenem-relebactam (I-R)

kanamycin (KAN)

lefamulin (LEF)

levofloxacin (LVX)

linezolid (LZD)

lomefloxacin (LOM)

loracarbef (LOR)

meropenem (MEM)

meropenem-vaborbactam (MVB)

methicillin (MET)

mezlocillin (MEZ)

minocycline (MIN)

moxalactam (MOX)

moxifloxacin (MXF)

nafcillin (NAF)

nalidixic acid (NAL)

neomycin (NEO)

netilmicin (NET)

nitrofurantoin (NIT)

norfloxacin (NOR)

ofloxacin (OFX)

omadacycline (OMC)

oritavancin (ORI)

oxacillin (OXA)

penicillin (PEN)

piperacillin (PIP)

piperacillin-tazobactam (TZP)

plazomicin (PLZ)

polymyxin B (PMB)

quinupristin-dalfopristin (Synercid) (Q-D)

rifabutin (RFB)

rifampin (RIF)

rifapentine (RFP)

sparfloxacin (SPX)

spectinomycin (SPT)

streptomycin (STR)

tedizolid (TZD)

teicoplanin (TEC)

telavancin (TLV)

telithromycin (TEL)

tetracycline (TET)

ticarcillin (TIC)

ticarcillin-clavulanic acid (TIM)

tigecycline (TGC)

tobramycin (TOB)

trimethoprim (TMP)

trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (SXT)

trovafloxacin (TVA)

vancomycin (VAN)

(ii) β-Lactamase inhibitors. Use the indicated abbreviations for the following β-lactamase inhibitors.

 

avibactam (AVI)

clavulanic acid (CLA)

relebactam (REL)

sulbactam (SUL)

tazobactam (TZB)

vaborbactam (VAB)

(iii) Antifungal agents. Use the indicated abbreviations for the following antifungal agents.

 

amphotericin B (AMB)

anidulafungin (AFG)

caspofungin (CAS)

clotrimazole (CLT)

flucytosine (5FC)

fluconazole (FLC)

isavuconazole (ISA)

itraconazole (ITC)

ketoconazole (KTC)

micafungin (MFG)

nystatin (NYT)

posaconazole (POS)

terbinafine (TRB)

valganciclovir (VAL)

voriconazole (VRC)

(iv) Antiviral agents. Use the indicated abbreviations for the following antiviral agents.

 

abacavir (ABC)

acyclovir (ACV)

adefovir dipivoxil (ADV)

amantadine (AMT)

amprenavir (APV)

asunaprevir (ASV)

atazanavir (ATV)

beclabuvir (BCV)

boceprevir (BOC)

brivudine (BVDU)

cidofovir (CDV)

cobicistat (COBI)

daclatasvir (DCV)

darunavir (DRV)

dasabuvir (DAS)

delavirdine (DLV)

didanosine (ddI)

dolutegravir (DTG)

efavirenz (EFV)

elbasvir (EBR)

elvitegravir (EVG)

emtricitabine (FTC)

enfuvirtide (EFV)

entecavir (ETV)

etravirine (ETR)

famciclovir (FCV)

favipiravir (FPV)

fomivirsen (FMV)

fosamprenavir (FPV)

foscarnet (PFA)

ganciclovir (GCV)

grazoprevir (GZR)

idoxuridine (IDU)

imiquimod (IQM)

indinavir (IDV)

interferon alfa (IFNα)

interferon alfacon 1 (CIFN)

lamivudine (3TC)

laninamivir octanoate (LO)

ledipasvir (LDV)

lopinavir (LPV)

lopinavir-ritonavir (LPV/r)

maraviroc (MVC)

nelfinavir (NFV)

nevirapine (NVP)

ombitasvir (OBV)

oseltamivir (OTV)

palivizumab (PZ)

paritaprevir (PTV)

pegylated interferon alfa (PegIFNα)

penciclovir (PCV)

peramivir (PRV)

podofilox (PDX)

raltegravir (RAL)

respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin, intravenous (RSV-IGIV)

ribavirin (RBV)

rilpivirine (RPV)

rimantadine (RIM)

ritonavir (RTV)

saquinavir (SQV)

simeprevir (SMV)

sinecatechins (SINE)

sofosbuvir (SOF)

stavudine (d4T)

telaprevir (TVR)

telbivudine (LdT)

tenofovir alafenamide (TAF)

tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)

tipranavir (TPV)

trifluridine (TFT)

valacyclovir (VACV)

valganciclovir (VGCV)

vaniprevir (VPV)

varicella-zoster immunoglobulin (VZIG)

varicella-zoster immune globulin (VariZIG)

velpatasvir (VEL)

vidarabine (VDR)

zalcitabine (ddC)

zanamivir (ZAN)

zidovudine (AZT)

(v) Antimycobacterial agents. Use the indicated abbreviations for the following antimycobacterial agents.

 

bedaquiline (BDQ)

capreomycin (CAP)

clofazimine (CLO)

D-cycloserine (DCS)

delamanid (DMD)

ethambutol (EMB)

ethionamide (ETO)

isoniazid (INH)

para-aminosalicylic acid (PAS)